Environmental Studies, Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Environmental Studies, Ethics - Essay ExampleLarge-scale farming is more(prenominal) complicated than large-scale industry. Also, the growth pace is very slow. To Karl Marx, capitalism meant a progressive historical stage that would eventually freeze because of internal contradictions, and in the end, qualification way for socialism. This ideology provides the base for Marxist theory on the impact of capitalism and mechanization on farmers, the transition from peasant-based agriculture towards an agricultural-industrial conversion.The need for revolution was inevitable. The customary means of agriculture just could not feed the mouths of billions of people. The impact of this revolution cannot be categorized as either good or bad in absolute terms. The peasant domestic industry was the backbone to the system providing protection for laborers. But with the transition this industry vanished and with it the traditional peasant culture. For the same reason, people started to date the benefit of having a small family, which meant fewer mouths to feed in the winters. The need for more money was the primary driving force.Marxs idea about agricultural revolution is delimitate within the comparison of large-scale farming versus small-scale agriculture. The assumption here is that the rural population will be segmented into strictly defined social classes a small minority of wealthy farmers living alongside the majority of agricultural workers. This relationship would not be based on comparability because the workers would have been always trying to free themselves from the oppression and influence of the authority. Marx proposed the success of transition but suggested that an alliance of industrial and agricultural working class was shrill for the healthy growth of the society. Ultimately, this union could become a force against the capitalists.Kautsky does not limit himself to a narrow debate. Only considering the

To develop an understanding of what has happened in Brazil or Canada Assignment

To develop an understanding of what has happened in Brazil or Canada or China over the last two years - Assignment ExampleIt is important to point out that Canada strategized on the way forward as farthest as the aforementioned achievements are concerned. In particular, Canada targeted economical transformation for better economic results, enhanced domestic and international partnerships, and effective resource management by the government through the central bank (Fitzpatrick, 2014). These strategies further sought the collaboration and involvement of the Canadian people as the sole beneficiaries of the governments economic efforts.Successful running of the Canadian economy is evident through the effective and efficient balance between the outlined economic goals and strategies. With objectives and strategies at hand, the government move to implement its operations in regards to enhancing Canadas economic performance. The first move was directed towards government institutions t hat serve the Canadian society at different levels. In this move, the critical factor was Canadas diverse society. The government mobilized resources through its agencies to reach out to the people and promote diversity, and inclusion. In essence, every member of the society was polar in the recent Canadian economic transformation.Secondly, the government and all its agencies support the notion of cooperative relationships. Different players in the economy contribute to national economic progress, an aspect that led the government to reconsider its relationship with these parties. As a result, the government, through the central bank, set aside adequate resources that further develop a relationship of cooperation and collaboration. The outcome was more cohesive and consistent economic progress in many sectors of the Canadian economy.Most importantly, the last two years cut the Canadian government enhance its practice of treaty management for strong economic growth (OECD, 2014). In essence, treaty management encompasses agreements that are

Microeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Microeconomics - Essay ExampleThe price of a one carrot baseball field is $10,000, while the price of 100 gallons of tap piss is $0.50 (Textbook, 2007). The diamond water paradox proves that the utility of a resource does not necessarily affect its price. The frugal explanation of the diamond water paradox is found on the law of demand and supply. The application of this law implies the reason the prices of diamonds are so high is based on the short supply of diamonds across the world (Varian, 2003).The prices of purified water sold in 20 ounce bottle units follow to certain extend corresponding logic as the diamond tap water paradox. Bottle waters price is much higher than the water that comes into peoples theater through its pluming system. To put the price in perspective with 100 gallons of water a company could prepare 640 twenty once bottles of water which retails at $1 a piece implying the market value of purified bottle water is 1040 times than the value of tap water. The quality of the product, its positive health benefit, its good refreshing mouthful and the formula that provides drinkable water at its optimum state of quality it can be to be consumed by humans. The marginal utility of bottle water is very suspect in comparison to tap water. The water in bottles has a market value which makes it an item that can only be apply to be drank by a person, on the other hand tap water can used consumed orally by humans as tumefy as a variety of other uses such as fro cleaning, to run machinery as a cooling agent, and many other uses. Tap water is mien cheaper and has more used than bottle water.Water is a valuable liquid that is generally available at very low prices for most of the worlds population. In the continent of Africa in general water is not readily available for many villages across the African nation. The utility and value of water for a community is tremendous. If water is in a state of scarcity in a region the social political syste m is destroyed and a disorganized

Nanotechnology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Nano technology - Essay Example1342-1347 Roco, 2001,pp. 225-233 Singh, Olson, & Maher, 2007, pp. 189-190 Takagi , Hirose A, Nishimura, Fukumori, Ogato, Ohashi, Kitajima & Kanno, 2008, pp. 105-116 Takenaka ,Karg , Roth, Schulz , Ziesenis, Heinzmann, Chramel, & Heyder, 2001, 547-461 Tinkle, Antonini, Roberts , Salmen, DePree & Adkins, 2003, pp, 1202-1208 Tran, BuBuchanan, Cullen, Searl, Jones, & Donaldson, 2000, pp, 1113-1126 Vincent & Clement, 2000, pp. 2673-2682. ). Describe the down and bottom up approach to nanotechnology There are two approaches in synthesizing nano materials and the creation of nano structures. These are top-down and bottom-up approaches (Gitam University, 2013). Top down approach is the slicing or successive cutting of a bulk material to frustrate nano sized particle (Gitam University, 2013 Srinivasan, 2008, p. 1-3 Sullivan, 2001, pp. 51-53).Bottom up approach, on the other hand, refers to the build-up of a material from the bottom (Gitam University, 2013). Th is means materials are reduced atom by atom, tinge by molecule or cluster by cluster. Both approaches are considered crucial in the development of modern nano industry and both possessed advantages and disadvantages (Gitam University, 2013). Experts cited that attend of attrition or milling is a common top down regularity in establishing nano particles while the colloidal dispersion is a bottom up type approach in synthesizing nano particles (Gitam University, 2013 Iqbal, Preece, & Mendes, 2012, p, 1). Experts explained that the problem with top down approach is the surface structure imperfection and the potential crystallographic damages in the construction method (Gitam University, 2013). This posed additional challenges in the architectural design and fabrication of matters although the application remained favourable to the production of nano materials albeit some limitations and risks posed by researchers (Gitam University, 2013 Brown, 2002, p. 1). Notwithstanding defects, n anotech continues to play an great role in the synthesis of nano structures (Gitam University, 2013). The century is experiencing this advancement. This is even done in the production of salt and nitrate in chemical industry(Gitam University, 2013 embed Of Nanotechnology, 2003, p, 245). Long ago, mess are already content to use rock salt as mixture and for food preservation. These days, there are already iodized salt that are reduced into minute particles in the market. Hence, tools are now made with nanometer scale to produce nano structures with less defects, and more homogeneous chemical composition (Gitam University, 2013 Institute Of Nanotechnology, 2003, p, 245). Unlike the bottom up approach, the top-down method introduces internal stress, surface defects and possible contamination. To further cite an example, electronic integrated circuits are created using top-down process with limitations described (Gitam University, 2013 Institute Of Nanotechnology, 2003, p, 245). Bott om-up approach assembles materials in supramolecular chemistry that combined an alternative route (Gitam University, 2013 Institute Of Nanotechnology, 2003, p, 245). Indicate the current stage of technology progress towards each of these. The development of laptops, microchips for information archiving, production of scanning tunneling microscope, digital cameras with zooming lenses that capture and

Sodium Thiosulphate Coursework Essay Example for Free

Sodium Thiosulphate Coursework EssayWe must produce a piece of coursework investigating the rates of chemical chemical reaction, and the effect antithetic changes have on them. The rate of reaction is the rate of loss of a reactant or the rate of for felt upion of a product during a chemical reaction. It is metric by dividing 1 by the conviction taken for the reaction to take place. There is five factors which affect the rate of a reaction, according to the collision possibility of reacting particles temperature, assiduity (of solution), pressure (in throttlees), surface atomic number 18 (of unanimous reactants), and guns. I have chosen to investigate the effect temperature and tightness have on a reaction. This is because they are the most practical to investigate it would take longer to prepare a comforting in powdered and unpowdered form, and it is difficult to get accurate readings due to the inevitabilities of pitying errors, and as gas is mostly colourless it is difficult to gauge a reaction changing the pressure, and if a substance is added to give the gas colour, it may do work the outcome of the experimentation. Similarly the use of a gas complicates things, and if used incorrectly could alter the outcome of the experiment.Experiment 1 Changing the concentration5 cm3 of HCl (at concentration 1 mol./dm3) and 15 cm3 of sodium thiosulphate (at vary concentrations 10 to 35 g/dm3) are poured out into two measuring cylinders and then poured into a conical flask, which is set on top of a board marked with letter X. The stopwatch forget now be started. When the mixture has turned sufficiently cloudy so that the letter X can no longer be moderaten the stopwatch go awaying be stopped and the time will be recorded. The experiment is restate with all the concentrations. The whole procedure is then repeated.Experiment 2 Changing the temperature5 cm of HCl (at concentration 1 mol./dm3) and 15 cm of sodium thiosulphate (at varying concent rations 10 to 35 g/dm3) are poured out into two measuring cylinders. A beaker is half filled with hot water from a tap. The water is rigid on top of a Bunsen on a blue flame and the two measuring placed inside the water bath. The water is change to the necessary temperature (30?C to 70?C) then the two measuring cylinders are taken out and the contents of both are poured into a conical cylinder. The time it takes for the X to disappear is timed and recorded. The experiment is repeated using all the temperatures. The entire procedure is the repeated.Repeat results and averages will be taken to improve the credibility of the findings, and present solid grounding for the final conclusion. The repeat results will help to iron out any anomalies and the average will give a skinny summary of the results of the experiment. However if one set of results is entirely different to the other, a third experiment will be performed to replace the anomalous set of results. preventative A pair o f goggles will be worn during the heating part of the experiment in order to protect the eyes. An apron will likewise be worn to protect the skin and clothing. When handling hot beakers and measuring cylinders a pair of tongs will be used. A gauze and heatproof mat will be used while heating to avoid any damage to the equipment.Fair Test In order for my findings to be valid the experiment must be a fair one. I will use the same standard severally time for judging when the X has disappeared. I will make sure that the measuring cylinders for the HCl and thiosulphate will not be mixed up. The amount of HCl will be 5 cm3 each time, and the amount of thiosulphate will be fixed at 15 cm3. During the heating stage of the experiment, a blue flame will be used throughout. Also the same Bunsen burner and gas tap will be used to maintain continuity. All of these precautions will make my final results more reliable and keep anomalies at a tokenish so and so make the entire investigation mo re victorious.Prediction I predict that as the temperature is change magnitude the rate of reaction will cast up. I also predict that as the concentration of the sodium thiosulphate increases the rate of reaction will increase. This means that both charts drawn up in my analysis will have positive coefficient of correlation, and will probably be curved as the increase in rate of reaction will not be barely the same as the concentrationtemperature is increased. This can be justified by relating to the collision theory. When the temperature is increased the particles will have more efficiency and thus move faster. and so they will collide more often and with more energy. Particles with more energy are more probably to overcome the energizing energy parapet to reaction and thus react successfully. If solutions of reacting particles are made more concentrated there are more particles per social unit volume. Collisions between reacting particles are therefore more likely to oc cur. All this can be understood better with full understanding of the collision theory itselfFor a reaction to occur particles have to collide with each other. unless a beautiful percent result in a reaction. This is due to the energy obstacle to overcome. Only particles with enough energy to overcome the barrier will react after colliding. The minimum energy that a particle must have to overcome the barrier is called the activating energy, or Ea. The size of this activation energy is different for different reactions. If the frequence of collisions is increased the rate of reaction will increase. However the percent of successful collisions remains the same. An increase in the frequency of collisions can be achieved by increasing the concentration, pressure, or surface area.Concentration If the concentration of a solution is increased there are more reactant particles per unit volume. This increases the probability of reactant particles colliding with each other.Pressure If the pressure is increased the particles in the gas are pushed closer. This increases the concentration and thus the rate of reaction.Surface Area If a solid is powdered then there is a greater surface area available for a reaction, compared to the same mass of unpowdered solid. Only particles on the surface of the solid will be able to undergo collisions with the particles in a solution or gas.The particles in a gas undergo random collisions in which energy is transferred between the colliding particles. As a result there will be particles with differing energies. Maxwell-Boltzmann energy distribution curves show the distribution of the energies of the particles in a gas.The main points to pedigree about the curves are1. There are no particles with zero energy.2. The curve does not touch the x-axis at the higher end, because there will endlessly be some particles with very high energies.3. The area under the curve is equal to the total number of particles in the system.4. The pe ak of the curve indicates the most probable energy.The activation energy for a given reaction can be marked on the distribution curve. Only particles with energy equal or greater than the activation energy can react when a collision occurs.Although Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curves are for the particles in a gas, the same distributions can be used for the particles in a liquid or solid.Effects of a temperature change The graph below shows Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution graphs for a fixed mass of gas at two temperatures T1 and T2, where T2 is or so 10?C higher than T1. The total area under the curve remains the same, since there is no change in the number of particles present.A small increase in temperature causes significant changes to the distribution energies. At the higher temperature1. The peak is at a higher energy.2. The peak is lower.3. The peak is broader.4. There is a thumping increase in the number of particles with higher energies.It is the final change that resul ts increase in rate, even with a relatively small increase in temperature. A small increase in temperature greatly increases the number of particles with energy greater than the activation energy. The shaded areas on the energy distribution curves show this.Effect of a catalyst A catalyst works by providing an alternative reaction pathway that has lower activation energy. A catalyst does not alter the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. Because a catalyst provides a reaction route of lower activation energy, however, a greater proportion of particles will have energy greater than the activation energy.AnalysisIn this experiment I have found that as the temperature and concentration is increased the time taken for the reaction to take place decreases. This means the rate of reaction increasers as it takes less time for a reaction to take place, so more take place per second. In the temperature experiment the time taken for a reaction to take place decreased by roughly 10 to 15 seconds f or every 10?C increase in temperature, with the one anomalousness being the 30?C reading. There is also a trend in the increase in rate of reaction as the temperature increases. The difference is always more or less 0.02 s-1, with the same exception.Using the graphs, with lines of best fit, I can draw a conclusion from my experiment. Firstly I can see that with the time graphs (that plot temperature and concentration against time taken for the reaction to take place) the graphs have negative correlation in both cases, meaning that as the temperatureconcentration increased the time taken for the reaction to take place decreases. The time graph for the temperature experiment has a much steeper curve than the one for the concentration experiment, meaning that the decrease in time taken for the reaction was far more rapid.Naturally, the above means that the both the graphs plotting rate against temperature and concentration have positive correlation as the temperature and concentratio n are increased so does the rate of reaction. This is because when the temperature is increased the particles will have more energy and thus move faster. Therefore they will collide more often and with more energy. Particles with more energy are more likely to overcome the activation energy barrier to reaction and thus react successfully, and when solutions of reacting particles are made more concentrated there are more particles per unit volume. Collisions between reacting particles are therefore more likely to occur.The graph for concentration shows that when the concentrations were relatively low (10, 15, 20 g/dm3), the increase of rate x1000 was also fairly small (increasing from 4.47 to 6.71 to 9.47). There was then a gradual increase in the difference, and between 30 and 35 g/dm3 the rate more than doubled from 17.90 to 37.56s-1. This shows that there are far more collisions at a concentration of 35 g/dm3 than at 30 g/dm3.The graph plotting time against the rate of reaction x1 000 shows that the difference of rate between increasing temperatures (excluding the anomaly of 30?C) was pretty much regular, increasing in steps of 6-10 (9.17 to 15.37 to 24.28 to 31.67). However, once again there is a giant gap in the last temperature increase at 60?C the RoR x1000 is 31.67 s-1, and at 70?C it is 57.03 s-1.For this to fully make sense it is necessary to recap the collision theory brieflyFor a reaction to occur particles have to collide with each other. Only a small percent result in a reaction. This is due to the energy barrier to overcome. Only particles with enough energy to overcome the barrier will react after colliding. The minimum energy that a particle must have to overcome the barrier is called the activation energy, or Ea. The size of this activation energy is different for different reactions. If thefrequency of collisions is increased the rate of reaction will increase. However the percent of successful collisions remains the same. An increase in the frequency of collisions can be achieved by increasing the concentration, pressure, or surface area.

Nightmare on Wazir Street Essay Example for Free

Nightm be on Wazir Street EssayThe newsletter Nightmare on Wazir Street describes four combat nightmares for those who are dismissal to be actively involved in destroying and deploying the US enemies. Avoid the obvious, set the conditions, dont make fatal assumptions, and use all the advantages to destroy enemies are the key guidelines of the newsletter. The soldiers were displace to Iraq, where they saw Baghdad hot and terribly crowded. A mess of houses, people and goods was seen everywhere. Iraqis were a ware of the constant possibility to meet violent death, but they continued doing their businesses and going wherever they had to. Traffic laws seemed neglected or ignored and, thus, the traffic was congested. Wazir Street was described as pretty much indistinguishable from any other pass except for the huge green domed mosque on the southern edge of the market area. (p. 1) All the nightmares occurred in the same place and with the same characters. The beginning(a) nightmare Avoid the Obvious provides four recommendations how to destroy enemies with no showed skills. In other words, the author calls for being attentive and not doing obvious things when fighting enemies.Firstly, unaffixed route for attack doesnt mean that you can easily attack as the enemy is thinking of attacking and killing you as well. Secondly, all the ship canal to escape should be blocked for enemies meaning you should isolate the objective. Thirdly, you should make the enemy react because it will give you an opportunity to make him pay for his actions. The author writes, I had only provided the enemy the problem, which he readily solved. (p. 9) It means that a soldier is required to create a situation, in which all the outcomes are evenly bad for the enemy.Finally, leading is very all-important(a) for successful outcome because leading suggests controlling your men and guiding their efforts in necessary direction. Controlling yourself will provide in better controlled soldie rs. The author explains that my anger and desire to kill the enemy who had killed my soldier got more of us killed. (p. 9) The second nightmare Set the Conditions describes the situation occurred when madden was waving to narrator. All the gates on the Wazir Street were closed except the one, and the narrator found it strange.He argued that only a foul would enter them. subsequently the satiation was resolved, the author drew several hard lessons from it. For example, he says that enemies might be aware of using the ladders to climb the walls. Further, getting ready to fight is important because it sets the overall direction of the future combat. You should not leap into enemys kill zone as it will be difficult to suppress him. Thus, war cant be viewed as timed event. Finally, the narrator recommends remembering that you will react the way you trained to react.(p. 14) The third nightmare bustt Make Fatal Assumption continues drawing hard lessons from conflicting situations. The na rrator stresses that suppressive fire works, and the chances not to be killed significantly increase. He continues that unless the enemy is forced to have his head down or distracted, he can still shoot. (p. 18) Further, you should always keep in mind that enemy whitethorn have depth to his defense. If you are trained to do something, it doesnt mean you should always do that.The fourth nightmare War is Not Fair implement All the Advantages Available to Kill the Enemy provides final hard lessons. The enemies are provided with the options to surrender, to escape and to fight. The narrator concludes that war should not be viewed as a sport. Instead, it is a team effort. Moreover, war is unfair meaning that you should use all the available advantages not to be killed. The most important recommendation is to grasp the initiative, to grasp what the enemies are very likely to do. The narrator concludes that the enemy is trained to study you, as well as you are trained to study him.

Strengthening Community Action Through Community Development Social Work Essay

Strengthening Community Action Through Community Development cordial Work quizAlthough the term giftment is frequently used, the availability of high-quality research which demonstrates its success for improving the tumefybeing of communities is fairly minimal (Woodall et al. 2010). There is, however, some evidence that shows that empowerment programs fucking lead to improve outcomes for participants. For example, in examining the effectiveness of interventions using companionship growing approach, the Migrant resource Centre of South Australia, which provides programs that targets particular necktie groups, including women, greener mass, has put d throw some promising ability to impact the lives of young refugees (MRCSA annual Report, 2009). In fact, this essay manages that while community of interests in stockation interventions are difficult to measure, the migrant mental imagery Centre of South Australia has registered signifi toilettet gains in the subject fie ld of youth empowerment.This essay leave behind highlight the various intervention programs implemented by the Migrant Resource Centre of South Australia (MRCSA). However, case study will focus on its youth empowerment component and to evaluate the overall effectiveness of community maturement approach of the organisation. To achieve this task, the essay is partitioned as follows. The first part will examine the definitions of empowerment. The next section will discuss about community development as a strategy and a model of practice by the Migrant Resource Centre of South Australia (MRCSA). The third section discusses the impact and challenges of this intervention. The final exam part of the essay will evaluate the impact of MRCSAs youth empowerment program among a count of interventions.Background and definition of the Concept of EmpowermentIn the 1990s the term empowerment began to replace community participation (Rifkin, 2003). Empowerment according to Rifkin has imagination ually evolved from the idea of lay participation in technical activities to a broader concern of improving life situations of the poor. This evolution can be traced historically in the areas of policy and in community activities. In the policy area, Rifkin proposes that three supposititious constructs can be identified to trace the changing spatial relation of participatory approaches from consensus building to empowerment. These Rafkin stated correspond to the policy-making and political environment of the time.The historical development of the concept of empowerment helps explain why there is no universally accepted definition of empowerment (Rifkin, 2003). However a routine of scholars defined it as a process (McArdle, 1989 Laverack, 2005 Werner, 1988 Kilby, 2002). McArdle (1989) defines empowerment as a process whereby decisions are made by the tidy sum who will wear the consequences of those decisions. Similarly Werner (1988) and Laverack (2005) describe the concept of emp owerment as a process by which people are fitting to gain or seize power to control over decisions and resources that correct their lives. Moreover, Kilby (2002) describe a process by which disadvantaged people prevail together to increase control over events that determine their lives. Expansion of individuals choices and actions, primarily in relation to others fundamentally a shift of power to those who are disempowered.From a everyday health perspective, empowerment involves acting with communities to achieve their goals (Talbot Verrinder, 2005). This implies working with disadvantaged individuals or groups to challenge structural disadvantaged (on the basis of class, gender, ethnicity or ability) and influence their health in a positive way. The application of the concept into the field of health furtherance as outline by Laverack and Labonte (2000) is categorized in two folds the bottom-up programming and the top-down programming. The former more associated with the c oncept of community empowerment begins on issues of concern to particular groups or individuals and regards some improvement in their overall power or capacity as the important health outcome. The later more associated with disease prevention efforts begin by seeking to involve particular groups or individuals in issues and activities largely defined by health agencies and regards improvement in particular behaviours as the important health outcome. Laverack and Labonte (2000) thus viewed community empowerment more instrumentally as a means to the end of health behaviour change. They argue that community empowerment which is defined as a shift towards greater equality in the social relations of power is an unavoidable feature of some(prenominal) health promotion efforts.On a much broader scale empowerment promotes participation of people, organisations and communities towards the goals of increased individual and community control, political efficacy, improved quality of community life, and social justice (Wallerstein, 1992). The next section is a case example of how this approach is applied by an agency in dealing with question of social inclusion.Community Development A case of Migrant Resource Centre of South Australia (MRCSA)By reviewing the previous definitions of empowerment and examining MRCSAs framework, It is clear that the worker in (MRCSA) look and adopt empowerment concept similar to which all of McArdle (1989) Laverack (2005) Werner (1988) Kilby (2002) and WHO (1986) do understand and adopt where empowerment is a matter of giving people the right and the hazard to exercise power and control regarding making decisions that affect their health promoting.In addition, in order to empower migrant people and communities, the (MRCSA) provide and still providing keep down of interventions based on community development model of practice. According to Tesoriero (2010), community development is the use of a set of ongoing twists and processes which en able the community to replete its own motives. Similar to Tesoriero (2010), Community Development is understood and implemented by the (MRCSA) as a multifaceted program of activities that concentrated on supporting the need of new arrivals and their new and appear communities to understand their rights and obligations, to link into training and employment pathways and to develop net whole kit of support within their local anaesthetic and in the broader community (www.mrcsa.com.au). In fact, The MRCSA has follow Laverack and Labontes (2000) bottom-up approach in implementing their programs by consult sing and working closely with leaders and key representatives of new and emerging communities, including women and young people, to support them in gaining the friendship and skills that they need to further their independence as thoroughly as their capacity to support and provide assistance to their members. Moreover, beside community development programs, MRCSA is providing num ber of womens advocacy programs, youth leadership and participation and employment advocacy programs, As well. The programs also include Refugee Mens Talk, an initiative supporting men to adapt to their new social environment.To figure and facilitate the participation of new and emerging communities in their local areas and in regional areas where they settle, or resettle, the program includes local government and regional initiatives. MRCSA believes that new and emerging communities require a place in which to implement their own activities. The organisation provides these through its own community centres and through linkages with other community facilities.Also, Given that community development as an approach require working across divergent spheres, the Migrant Resource Centre of South Australia (MRCSA) maintain link with a number of stakeholders. These include the Commonwealth Government, the state of South Australia and the NGO community.(www.mrcsa.com.au). At the level of t he Commonwealth Government, the links include Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Centrelink, Employee Advocate, Department of Families, Housing, Community go and Indigenous Affairs and Australia Council for the Arts. At the level of the State Government the links are Multicultural SA, Department of health, Department of Families and Communities, Department of Education and Childrens Services, Skills SA, English nomenclature Services TAFE SA, Arts SA, Office for Women, Womens Information Service, Womens health State Wide, Local Government Association of SA and Be Active. The links within the Non-Government Sector includes Settlement Council of Australia (SCoA), Refugee Council of Australia, alliance of Ethnic Communities Councils of Australia (FECCA) LM Training Specialists, SA Council of Social Service (SACOSS), Service to youth Council (SYC), Working Womens Centre, Migrant Womens Support and Accommodation Service, Youth Affairs Council of SA (YACSA), Anglicare SA, A frican Communities Council (ACCSA), heart Eastern Communities Council (MECCSA), Volunteering SA and Northern Territory. Analysing this web of networks from Labontes, (1992) community development continuum, the MRCSAs programs deal with individuals which transcend to small groups, community organisations, coalition advocacy and political action. With this wide array of networks, the organisation has been facilitated to maintains a huge amount of social capital and through careful co-ordination, it stands a lot to gain in achieving its primary objectives (Butter et al. 1966)The next section will focus on one of its many programs in the area of youth enhancement.Youth Empowerment ProgramThe Migrant Resource Centre of South Australia (MRCSA) works closely with the leadership and key representatives of its client communities, including women and young people to support them in acquiring the knowledge and skills that they need to further their independence and self-determination, as wel l as their capacity to assist their members with their settlement and participation (www.mrcsa.com.au)). These goals are achieved through a number of programs including ethnic leaders forum, adult migrant education, community solicitude and leadership forum by way of funding and leadership training. This section focuses on its youth empowerment program with emphasis on the Newly Arrived Youth Settlement Services (NAYS). The primary objective of this program as outlined in the MRCSA Annual Report (2008-2009) is to empower young people to develop their own programs and to become advocates for themselves, their families and communities.In partnership with TAFE SA, the MRCSA conducted a number of training programs for young people who were not engaged in school or work. Specific training includes Certificate II in Information Technology, Productively Places Program Certificate II, Volunteering, work experience capacity building, apprentiships and traineeships (MRCSA Annual Report (2008 -2009).Through its new arrival humanitarian settlement program, the MRCSA has been an advocate and a voice for the inclusion and participation of young people of refugee background (www.mrcsa.com.au). According to the 2010 MRCSA Youth Empowerment Program Annual Report, the program has since 1998 addressed the needs of young people from new and emerging communities in South Australia through a multi-faceted program. The program provides young people with a range of services that aim to further their resilience, leadership skills and pathways to employment and independence. The MRCSA Youth Empowerment Program for 2008-2009 provided assistance to five hundred and twenty-nine (529) young people of refugee background, most of them recent arrivals to South Australia, to achieve some of their goals (Annual Report 2009-2010). These achievements were based on strong foundations upon which MRCSA operate. The next section will discuss the guiding principles which form the basis of MRCSAs opera tions.MRCSA Guiding PrinciplesThe Migrant Resource Centre of South Australias philosophy and approach in working with young people from refugee backgrounds outline a number of guiding principles (Annual Report, 2008-2009). The principles discussed below indicate that MRCSA operates Laverack and Labontes (2000) bottom-up approach of community development. The guiding principles include the followingFirstly, any youth programs, initiatives or activities are shaped and compulsive by the young people themselves through consultation with their peers. Secondly, young people are encouraged and supported to speak for themselves to drive their own development the utilisation of the MRCSA is that of mentor and advisor only. Thirdly, the importance of young peoples connection to family and community is recognized, valued and supported. Fourthly, the ethnic, religious and cultural identity and heritage of young people is affirmed and gazeed. Fifthly, respect for gender differences and how th ese impact on the planning and delivery of the youth program. Also, young people are active decision makers. Finally, an action research approach informs constant service improvement and best practice.These guiding principles are based on the premise that empowerment strategies focus on what people can do to empower themselves and so deflect attention from social issues (Keleher et al. 2007 Keleher, and Murphy, 2004) . However, Labonte (1990) warns that unless national and international trends are taken into account, the decentralization of decision-making whitethorn shift from victim blaming of individuals to victimizing powerless communities. In view of such warnings, Wilson et al (1999) suggest that effective primary health care as in the case of public health functions depends on efforts to link local issues to broader social issues. Intersectoral action can be used to promote and achieve shared goals in a number of other areas, for example policy, research, planning, practice and funding. It whitethorn be implemented through a myriad of activities including advocacy, legislation, community projects, and policy and programme action. It may take different forms such as cooperative initiatives, alliances, coalitions or partnerships (Health Canada http//www.hc-sc.gc.ca)What are the Barriers?In achieving their goal of empowering communities, the Migrant Resource Centre of South Australia (MRCSA) faces a number of challenging issues.When young refugees arrive in Australia they face a number of challenges. They need to begin a new life, establish new friends and networks and find pathways that link them into mainstream community (MRCSA Annual Report, 2008-2009).Some young people may also be at risk and need to deal with issues around language, religious identity, grief and loss, the justice system, consumer culture and intergenerational tension (MRCSA Annual Report, 2008-2009). Young people also need ways of dealing with race, racism and their identity (MRCSA A nnual Report, 2008-2009).There are fewer opportunities for young women from new and emerging communities to participate in sport due to the barriers they experience from within sporting environments and their own communities (MRCSA Annual Report, 2009). These barriers can be based on cultural, religious, and gender expectations of young women and their roles in their community. The physical composition (MRCSA, 2009) also highlighted other factors affecting young women participation in sports. These include lack of parental support, perceived fear of racism, lack of knowledge about the structure of sport in Adelaide and high cost of membership and registration fees.On the other hand, community development approach can pose barriers to Public Health Practitioners in a number of ways. Epidemiological, sociological, and psychological evidence of the relationship between influence, control, and health, provide a rationale for a community empowerment approach to health education. For exa mple, studies show an association between powerlessness (or similarly, learned helplessness, alienation, exploitation) and mental and physical health status. Examining the application of community empowerment approach to health education, Israel (1994) identified a number of limitations and barriers to this approach. Firstly, situations where community members past experiences and normative beliefs result in feelings that they do not have influence within the system (powerlessness, quiescence) and hence, they may feel that get involved in an empowerment intervention would not be worthwhile. Secondly, differences in, for example, social class, race, ethnicity, that often exist between community members and health educators that may impede trust, communication, and collaborative work. Thirdly, role-related tensions and differences that may arise between community members and health educators around the issues of values and interests, resources and skills, control, political realities , and rewards. Fourthly, difficulty in assessing/measuring community empowerment and being able to show that change has occurred. Fifthly, the health education profession does not widely understand and value this Approach. Next, risks involved with and potential resistance encountered when challenging the status quo, for the individual, organizations, and community as well as the health educator. Seventhly, the short time-frame expectations of some health educators, their employers, and community members are inconsistent with the sustained effort that this approach requires in damage of long-time commitment of financial and personal resources. Finally, the collection and analysis of extensive amounts of both qualitative and quantitative data to be used for action as well as evaluation purposes may be perceived as slowing down the process.Inspire of these barriers, community development is still relevant to Public Health Practitioners. Epidemiological, sociological, and psychological evidence of the relationship between influence, control, and health, provide a rationale for a community development approach to health education (Israel, 1994). For example, studies show an association between powerlessness (or similarly, learned helplessness, alienation, exploitation) and mental and physical health status (Israel, 1994).The challenges posed by community development approach also extend to the wider area of state level. The demand on government and competition for resources by professionals is a major obstacle. Similarly, Inter-professional distrust and reluctance to share information also remains a major obstacle. The way in which governments fund departments can be an obstacle to collaboration (Baum, 1993). It is therefore argued that Stability of an organisation and its staff is important for interagency agreements and establishing trust ( pedestrian et al. 2000). Walker (2002) further argued that Competition for resources can affect trust and intergroup confl ict can occur when there is a lack of adversaries. However, insecurity brought on by political and economic uncertainty can facilitate political coalitions (Weisner, 1983).Overcoming the barriersOvercoming the barriers will require a concerted effort from communities, concerned organisations and government. The Proceedings of 2008 the Conference on Social Inclusion for New and Emerging Communities, outline some of the areas that need urgent interventions are discussed below.Racism and discriminationIdentified as a major area of concern, combating discrimination requires coordinated and targeted social inclusion and human right measures. The focus should not be limited to what occurs in a social context (e.g. schoolyard, public places etc.) but also the systemic racism that supports discrimination, the perpetuation of racial stereotypes, and institutional inclusion e.g. within the justice system, the employment sector and in the blocks to the recognition of abroad qualifications and experience as well as the registration and utilization of these.Women and safetyWomen should have the right to feel safe in their homes as well as the broader community, to access culturally appropriate services for themselves and their families (e.g. health, childcare, education etc ), to learn English without it compromising their chances at finding a job and to undertake training that prepares them for work and improve their employment potential.Empowering young peopleThe voices of the diversity of young people rather than a token representative from new and emerging communities must be listened to and give strong credence in the advance of a national or state framework for social inclusion. Supporting the empowerment and participation of young people as future citizens and leaders of Australia will serve the country culturally, socially and economically.Base on the above discussion in the case of challenges to MRCSA operations, solutions to barriers could be summarized therein Barriers can be overcome through integrated structures, developing responsibility within structuresSupport of local leaders, developing leadership skills for negotiation and collaboration. Enhancing regional networks/structures, established processes and relationships are important for collaboration.ConclusionFrom the case studies, it was found that the Migrant Resource Centre of South Australia (MRCSA) utilize community mobilization approaches to improve fairness of services, reduce institutional barriers within the society, enhance participation in new and emerging communities, strengthen civil society associations and create healthy social policies. The programs exhibit that opportunities for community voices to be heard had been increased and this had raised community capacity to maximise their needs and create change.This study also found that empowerment can have a positive impact on participants self-efficacy, self-esteem, sense of community and sense of control and, in som e cases, empowerment can increase individuals knowledge and awareness and lead to behaviour change. These findings were particularly apparent on youth empowerment approaches and those programmes concerning young women.